In the heart of ancient Mesopotamia, under the clear, starlit skies, Babylonian scholars were pioneering methods to study the heavens that would presage some of modern mathematics' most integral concepts. These astronomers recorded the rising and setting of planets and the patterns of lunar and solar eclipses with meticulous attention. What makes their approach so astonishing is their use of what we now recognize as early forms of integral calculus—an intellectual feat that would not be formally